Ankylosing spondylitis (AS), an immune-mediated arthritis, is the prototypic member of a group of conditions known as spondyloarthropathies that also includes reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and enteropathic arthritis. Patients with these conditions share a clinical predisposition for spinal and pelvic joint dysfunction, as well as genetic associations, notably with HLA-B(*)27. Spondyloarthropathies are characterized by histopathological inflammation in entheses (regions of high mechanical stress where tendons and ligaments insert into bone) and in the subchondral bone marrow, and by abnormal osteoproliferation at involved sites. The association of AS with HLA-B(*)27, first described >40 years ago, led to hope that the cause of the disease would be rapidly established. However, even though many theories have been advanced to explain how HLA-B(*)27 is involved in AS, no consensus about the answers to this question has been reached, and no successful treatments have yet been developed that target HLA-B27 or its functional pathways. Over the past decade, rapid progress has been made in discovering further genetic associations with AS that have shed new light on the aetiopathogenesis of the disease. Some of these discoveries have driven translational ideas, such as the repurposing of therapeutics targeting the cytokines IL-12 and IL-23 and other factors downstream of this pathway. AS provides an excellent example of how hypothesis-free research can lead to major advances in understanding pathogenesis and to the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.

Technological advances over the past decade have revolutionized many areas of rheumatology, ranging from diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic development to the mechanistic understanding of rheumatic diseases. This overview highlights key technological innovations and discusses the major impact that these developments are having on research and clinical practice.

HCQ is widely used for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, particularly lupus and RA. It is generally well tolerated, but retinopathy is a concern. Retinopathy is rare, but is sight threatening, generally irreversible and may progress even after cessation of therapy. Damage may be subclinical. Although a number of risk factors have been proposed (such as duration of therapy and cumulative dose), the many exceptions (e.g. retinopathy on low-dose HCQ, or no retinopathy after a very large cumulative dose of HCQ) highlight our limited understanding of the disease process. Novel technologies such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), fundus autofluorescence (FAF) and multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) may provide the earliest structural and functional evidence of toxicity in these stages. Along with the well-established technique of central visual field testing (10-2 visual fields), these modalities are increasingly being used as part of screening programmes. The ideal single test with high sensitivity and high specificity for HCQ retinopathy has still not been achieved. Screening for HCQ retinopathy remains an area of considerable debate, including issues of when, who and how to screen. Commonly accepted risk factors include receiving >6.5 mg/kg/day or a cumulative dose of >1000 g of HCQ, being on treatment for >5 years, having renal or liver dysfunction, having pre-existing retinopathy and being elderly. HCQ continues to be a valuable drug in treating rheumatic disease, but clinicians need to be aware of the associated risks and to have arrangements in place that would enable early detection of toxicity.

RA predominantly affects post-menopausal women and is strongly associated with development of generalised osteoporosis. To find treatments that target both joint manifestations and osteoporosis in RA is desirable. The third generation of selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) [lasofoxifene (LAS) and bazedoxifene (BZA)] are new treatment options for post-menopausal osteoporosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of LAS and BZA on arthritic disease and inflammation-associated bone loss using CIA in mice.

With the explosion in biologics use in rheumatology, newer and smarter ways of using these drugs in different diseases have been advocated. SLE has to date been at the back of the biologics algorithms. Recently, the US Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Evaluation Agency licensed belimumab for use in SLE, the first drug in >30 years. A clinical review of the evidence that underlies the use of belimumab and other biologics in SLE reveals possible reasons why the results are not as spectacular as they are in other diseases.

This following is a review of the factors that influence the outcome of biologic agents in the treatment of adult RA and, when synthesized into the clinical decision-making process, enhance optimization. Adiposity can exacerbate inflammatory diseases; patients with high BMI have worse outcomes from RA, including TNF inhibitors (TNFis), whereas the efficacy of abatacept and tocilizumab is unaffected. Smoking adversely affects TNFi outcomes but has less or no effect on the efficacy of rituximab and tocilizumab, and the effect on abatacept is unknown. Patients who are positive for ACPA and RF have better efficacy with rituximab and abatacept than those who are seronegative, whereas the influence of serotype is less significant for tocilizumab and more complex for TNFis. All biologics seem to do better when co-prescribed with MTX, whereas in monotherapy, tocilizumab is superior to adalimumab and prescription of a non-MTX DMARD has advantages over no DMARD for rituximab and adalimumab. Monitoring of TNFi drug levels is an exciting new field, correlating closely with efficacy in RA and PsA, and is influenced by BMI, adherence, co-prescribed DMARDs and anti-drug antibodies. The measurement of trough levels provides a potential tool for patients who are not doing well to determine early whether to switch within the TNFi class (if levels are low) or to a biologic with an alternative mode of action (if levels are normal or high). Conversely, the finding of supratherapeutic levels has the potential to enable individual patient selection for dose reduction without the risk of flare.

Patients with SSc have an increased risk of malignancy compared with the general population. Before now, no study has evaluated the risk of thyroid cancer (TC) in SSc patients. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of TC in SSc patients.

Limited data are available on the risk of cardiovascular disease in DM and PM. The purpose of this study was to estimate the risk of incident myocardial infarction (MI) and ischaemic stroke in adults with incident PM/DM at the general population level.

Outcome of JDM is highly heterogeneous. Our objective was to determine clinical and muscle biopsy features associated with poor outcome and response to treatment.

Allopurinol is the most commonly prescribed urate-lowering therapy for the management of gout. Serious adverse reactions associated with allopurinol, while rare, are feared owing to the high mortality. Such reactions can manifest as a rash combined with eosinophilia, leukocytosis, fever, hepatitis and progressive kidney failure. Risk factors for allopurinol-related severe adverse reactions include the recent introduction of allopurinol, the presence of the HLA-B(*)58:01 allele, and factors that influence the drug concentration. The interactions between allopurinol, its metabolite, oxypurinol, and T cells have been studied, and evidence exists that the presence of the HLA-B(*)58:01 allele and a high concentration of oxypurinol function synergistically to increase the number of potentially immunogenic-peptide-oxypurinol-HLA-B(*)58:01 complexes on the cell surface, thereby increasing the risk of T-cell sensitization and a subsequent adverse reaction. This Review will discuss the above issues and place this in the clinical context of reducing the risk of serious adverse reactions.

There is conflicting evidence regarding prognosis in patients with primary SS (pSS). The aim of this study was to estimate the rate, risk factors and causes of mortality in patients with pSS through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

To evaluate disease features and outcomes in two populations with significant Amerindian ancestry.

This study examines the utility of MRI, including T2 maps and T2 maps corrected for muscle fat content, in evaluating patients with idiopathic inflammatory myopathy.

The aim of this study was to recognize risk factors for extrarenal SLE flares in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) receiving renal replacement therapy (RRT).